There are 36 cards; the pip cards ranging from 6 to 10, Under Knave (Unter), Over Knave (Ober), King, and Ace. Three decks of this category are still used to play certain games: The Tarocco Siciliano is the only deck to use the so-called Portuguese suit system which uses Spanish pips but intersects them like Italian pips. They have been around for centuries, and continue to be very popular today. How many cards per suit? The Church condemned divination and gambling both (in spite of the fact that divination is depicted favorably more often than not in the bible). The artwork on English court cards appears to have been largely influenced by designs produced in Rouen, Belgium, which produced large amounts of playing cards for export. Now I have taught my own grandchildren many card games and planned to do the same for them. [15][16], The oldest surviving tarot cards are the 15 or so Visconti-Sforza tarot decks painted in the mid-15th century for the rulers of the Duchy of Milan. Who knows, your favorite game could be very similar in concept to what they were playing back in Ancient China! The first records date to 1367 in Berne and they appear to have spread very rapidly across the whole of Europe, as may be seen from the records, mainly of card games being banned. The playing card deck and Tarot share the Knight (Jack), Queen, and King, but Tarot also has a Page. When a Tarot card is shown, understanding what it means can . A person shuffles the cards before arranging them in a Tarot card spread. The tarot (/tro/, first known as trionfi and later as tarocchi or tarocks) is a pack of playing cards, used from at least the mid-15th century in various parts of Europe to play card games such as Tarocchini. Finally we will travel over the ocean to the United States, which is where most of our decks are produced today by USPCC in the form that we now know them. The common consensus appears to be that an early form of playing cards originated somewhere in Asia, but to be completely honest, we cannot be entirely sure. Other articles you might find interesting: About the writer:EndersGameis a well-known and highly respected reviewer of board games and playing cards. However, the suits vary in style depending on the region and time. With playing cards having such a long history, there has surely been a number of games that were developed long before recorded history would allow us to figure out what the very first game was. The European versions, though, have come to spread over other subjects as well, incorporating typical allegorical motifs and themes that can be found in many examples of . One early pattern of playing cards that evolved was one with the suits of Batons or Clubs, Coins, Swords, and Cups. This helps to give further depth and meaning to the spread, which is not possible with playing cards. [6] You don't need to use a special layout to read your cards. Do you have a favorite vintage deck? The Templars, Knights of the Holy Sepulcher. 1. In: Zeitschrift fr schweizerische Archologie und Kunstgeschichte 30 (1973), pp. Tarot cards are still used today to play card games, and since the late 18th century have also been used for fortune telling. The two just divided many years ago in Europe and carried on parallel to each other. Among English-speaking countries where these games are not widely played, only specially designed cartomantic tarot cards are readily available and they are used primarily for novelty and divinatory purposes. The oldest games were likely developed in ancient China or other parts of Asia. Over the last several hundred years, people have created various types of games that can be played with these cards. tarot, any of a set of cards used in tarot games and in fortune-telling. History dates the origin of playing cards to the late fourteenth century in Italy. To determine who takes a set of cards, you only look at what card was led, and whether a trump was played. 2. This 59-piece set Hi! Tarot did not originate in ancient Egypt, despite claims to the contrary. > It was only after the invention of the printing press that mass production of cards became possible. But playing cards did not pass through Europe without the English leaving their stamp on them. Potentially inspired by tarot cards, European card makers began using Swords, Clubs, Cups and Coins as the suit symbols on their playing cards in the 14th century. Some historians suggest that all card "games" were originally developed in part as a way to hide (from the medieval Church) the more serious application of the cards and symbols. To begin with, they opted to use the names. The original purpose of tarot cards was to play games. As a result, the Ace of Spades tended to have elaborate designs along with the manufacturer's name. These are not true tarot packs, but standard 36-card German-suited decks for games like German Tarok, Bauerntarock, Wrttemberg Tarock and Bavarian Tarock. [Most Helpful Examples], Tarot Spreads For Self-Love (4 Best Ones), What are Tarot Cards Based On? The cards do not reveal the future to us, but they offer valuable advice to better face tomorrow, understand our past and to unravel the tangle of a complicated present. But whatever variety was present, slowly disappeared as a result of the industrious efforts of Briton Thomas de la Rue, who was able to reduce the prices of playing cards due to increased output and productivity. A Notice of the Ludus Triumphorum and some Early Italian Card Games; With Some Remarks on the Origin of the Playing Cards. It is an innovation from around 1860 that designated a trump card that beat both the otherwise highest ranking right bower and left bower. From the infancy of the Fool to the completion and knowledge that finds its embodiment in the World, this system speaks the ancient language of symbols. The first generation of French-suited tarots depicted scenes of animals on the trumps and were thus called "Tiertarock" ('Tier' being German for 'animal') appeared around 1740. The first team of players to score 3 sets of cards wins the hand. The traditional Italian tarot suits are swords, batons, coins and cups; however, in modern occult tarot decks, the suit of batons is often called wands, rods or staves; the suit of coins is often called pentacles or disks and the suit of cups is often referred to as goblets. Artists in Europe created the first playing cards, which were used for games, and featured four different suits. Playing cards use the deck of 52 cards. Decker, Depaulis & Dummett (1996), p. 38. How many suits? The Spanish packs also didn't have a 10, and with the absence of 8s and 9s in the national Spanish game of, To establish themselves as a card-manufacturing nation in their own right, the Germans introduced their own suits to replace the Italian ones, and these new suits reflected their interest in rural life: acorns, leaves, hearts, and bells; the latter being hawk-bells and a reference to the popular rural pursuit of falconry. The Joker was initially referred to as "the best bower", which is terminology that originates in the popular trick-taking game of euchre, which was popular in the mid-19th century, and refers to the highest trump card. However, it is believed by experts that the origination of playing cards dates back to ancient China, as there is evidence of a type of card set as early as the 9th Century during the Tang Dynasty. from this time onward, including cards with icons representing coins, which also appear as icons on playing cards later in Western Europe. [Major and Minor], they offer valuable advice to better face tomorrow, The Templars, Knights of the Holy Sepulcher. 28 & 31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDaynes2000 (. What Is Tarot and Where the Hell Did It Come From? Though some of these games are similar in nature, they all seem to have their own unique personality that differentiates them from other games. The heart suit is the default trump suit. These groups are called "suites" and relate to each of the four elements: air, fire, water and earth. With both styles of playing cards having such rich histories, and dating back so far, one cant help but wonder which ones are older. What Are Easy Card Games For Two Players? With its ornate design and gold accents, this deck is comparable to the hand-painted, gold-embellished decks that were the rage among Italian In fact, the four suits correspond directly with the suits in a Tarot deck. Whatever the reasons, it is to usage in England that we owe the names that we use for the suits today. It is very possible that playing cards made their way from China to Europe via Egypt in the Mamluk period, with decks from that era having goblets (cups), gold coins, swords, and polo-sticks, which represent the main interests of the Mamluk aristocracy, and bear parallels to the four suits seen in Italian playing cards from the 14th century. It is also to the English that we owe the place of honour given to the Ace of Spades, which has its roots in taxation laws. Where to get them: Do you want to pick up some historic looking cards from PlayingCardDecks.com? Around 1800, a greater variety of decks were produced, mostly with genre art or veduta. Some images are clearly of biblical origin (The Judgment, the Angel, the Tower, which recalls that of Babel, the Devil, to the angelic creatures of the Lovers and the Judgment. Only in 1862 were approved manufacturers finally allowed to print their own Ace of Spades, but the fate of the signature Ace of Spades had been decided, and the practice of an ornate Ace with the manufacturer's name was often continued. As a matter of fact, they have been around in European cultures for . The court cards from the late 14th century decks in Italy typically included a mounted king, a seated and crowned queen, plus a knave. The child arrived, but unlike what was expected, it was a girl, Bianca Maria Visconti (and this, over time, also changed the symbolism of the cards). The similarities of a standard deck of cards and a Tarot deck are hard to miss. The game was used to predict the future. Although we know that playing cards entered Europe in the late 1300s, and expect that it was brought to Europe from Egypt by way of either Italy or Spain, it is Germany that holds the record as the oldest known game. Notable characters ascribed to the Queens include the Greek goddess Pallas Athena (Spades), Judith (Hearts), Jacob's wife Rachel (Diamonds), and Argine (Clubs). [21][22] The decks were known exclusively as Trionfi during the fifteenth century. ), What Cards Should You Collect? The tarot card then was transformed into a divination tool in the 1700s, when the 22 Major Arcana, showed the path that humanity would have to follow to achieve enlightenment. [10] Italy continues to play regionally popular games with their distinctive Tarot packs. Despite many feeling that Tarot cards are on the dark side of things, there are a lot of different games you can play with them. The 18th century saw tarot's greatest revival, during which it became one of the most popular card games in Europe, played everywhere except Ireland and Britain, the Iberian peninsula, and the Ottoman Balkans. The new name first appeared in Brescia around 1502 as Tarocho. First known as "squeezers", decks with these indices were not immediately well received. Do you want to pick up some historic looking cards from. How many cards in a deck? The Mysterious Origins of the Tarot Card Deck What we do know, is that the historical origin of Tarot was long ago, and it remains a mystery to this day in 2021 how Tarot cards exactly originated. [2] The early French occultists claimed that tarot cards had esoteric links to ancient Egypt, the Kabbalah, Indic Tantra, or the I Ching, and these claims have been frequently repeated by authors on card divination. ; used by fortunetellers A card game played in various different variations. In the 1400s playing cards often appear along with dice games in religious sermons as examples of gambling activities that are denounced, and there is clear evidence that a 52 card deck existed and was used in this time. You are about to learn the origins of the tarot deck that you are holding onto right now, or are thinking about purchasing. The reality is that playing cards have undergone a radical transformation since their first beginnings several centuries ago. One interesting feature of the French dominance of playing cards in this time is the attention given to court cards. One final innovation that we owe to the United States is the addition of the Jokers. The first playing card decks available in Europe were all hand-painted, which made them extremely expensive, and really only something for the rich. This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 20:02. Peter F. Kopp: Die frhesten Spielkarten in der Schweiz. However, in the past, suits could also include cups, swords, clubs, and coins. The card (or cards) is your jumping off point. . A set of playing cards are divided into "suits.". The most prominent tarot deck version used in these two countries was the Tarot of Marseilles of Milanese origin. This coincided with the older game being renamed tarocchi. Playing cards are believed to have been brought to Europe as an import from travelers to Africa. *This post may contain affiliate links. But the real stroke of genius that the French came up with was to divide the four suits into two red and two black, with simplified and clearer symbols. This article was exceptional. That the Templars were esoteric also testifies to the complex symbolism of gothic cathedrals which they were the creators of, while that they were actively involved in alchemy, proved by their own rule which, in one step, expressly forbids making gold in the presence of strangers. The standard German suits of acorns, leaves, hearts, and bells were predominant, however, although in nearby Switzerland it was common to see a variation using flowers instead of leaves, and shields instead of hearts. The queen was also eliminated from the Italian courts, and these instead consisted of a King and two knaves, an, Meanwhile early in the 15th century, the French developed the icons for the four suits that we commonly use today, namely hearts, spades, diamonds, and clubs, although they were called, But playing cards did not pass through Europe without the English leaving their stamp on them. The Knaves were commonly designated as La Hire (Hearts), Charlemagnes knight Ogier (Spades), Hector the hero of Troy (Diamonds), and King Arthur's knight Lancelot (Clubs). With both of them being centuries old, it is understandable that you could think that Tarot cards were the original. Hi there! For some it comes from tarot, the back of the first crossed-striped cards or by tarotiers, the makers of the first cards, and others by the god thot. Tarot cards are tools, and a tool is only as powerful as the person wielding it. The cards are quite small and not reversible.[9]. There is still a lot we dont know about tarot cards and their history and origins. 4 I am a magician and often present this magical correlation of a deck of cards with the calendar year. So let's head to Europe, to the earliest confirmed reference to playing cards there, which we find in a Latin manuscript written by a German monk in a Swiss monastery. Aleister Crowley, who devised the Thoth deck along with Lady Frieda Harris, stated of the tarot: "The origin of this pack of cards is very obscure. From their Italian roots, tarot playing cards spread to most of Europe evolving into a family of games that includes German Grosstarok and modern games such as French Tarot and Austrian Knigrufen. All you need to do is to accurately cut sheets of paper into similar sizes and add numbers and designs. 13 The "Major Arcana" are 22 cards without suits like The Lovers, The Fool and The Devil. Robert Steele. Where did this fascinating divinatory art originate from? He is considered an authority on playing cards and has written extensively about their design, history, and function, and has many contacts within the playing card and board game industries. What is the most valuable tarot card? The Tarot is a mirror and a map of the soul reflecting the entire spectrum of human experience. In fact, the most significant elements that shaped today's deck were produced by the different cultures and countries that playing cards travelled through in order to get to the present day. At any rate these are still the four suits still found in Italian and Spanish playing cards today, and are sometimes referred to as the Latin suits. Consulting the Tarot cards is entertaining, even as we use it for advice or to decipher the deeper meaning of circumstances and events in our lives. History of Bridge - The origin of playing cards was in China, where paper was invented, dates back to around the year 1120. Also, following suits isnt important. Similar bans were enacted throughout Europe as preachers sought to regulate card playing, convinced that "the Devil's picture book" led only to a life of depravity. Even today, the Major Arcana suggests to us the way forward to reach awareness of ourselves and to face our darkest fears. It was also around this time that double-ended court cards became common (to avoid the need to turn the cards, thereby revealing to your opponent that you had court cards in your hand) and the existing full-length designs were adapted to make them double-ended. Lets look at some of the early decks of Tarot cards, and the history of how these came to be used as more than just a parlor game. - A Brief History of Playing Cards 14,858 views Jul 16, 2018 286 Dislike Share Save Mage 2.03K subscribers Where did playing cards come from? Image courtesy of Allure. Experts suspect that either Italian or Spanish travelers brought them back after visiting the Islamic Mamluk dynasty centered in Egypt. Debunking Common Myths - Did Playing Cards Develop from the Tarot Deck? The French also preferred a king, queen, and knave as their court cards. Until today he has always been looking for answers to a wide array of questions that torment him. (2013-06-16) How Playing Cards are Made Two layers of paper (with dark glue) or 100% plastic. Others have proposed connections between playing cards and chess or dice games, but this is again speculative. Well to my surprise, it doesnt look like Congress cards are even made anymore, and certainly not the #606 with the gold border and option to imprint. The game of Karnoffel is known to have been commonly played in Bavaria by 1426. Playing cards are believed to have first appeared in Europe in the 1370's, about 70 years before the first recordings of Tarot decks in Milan, Italy in the 1430's. Playing cards are believed to have been brought to Europe as an import from travelers to Africa. Tarot cards, then known as tarocchi, first appeared in Ferrara and Milan in northern Italy, with a Fool and 21 trumps (then called trionfi) being added to the standard Italian pack of four suits: batons, coins, cups and swords. [8][9] Tarock games like Knigrufen have experienced significant growth in Austria where international tournaments are held with other nations especially from eastern Europe that still play such games, including Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. Like the Italian-suited tarot, the deck is used for both game playing and cartomancy. Here is how they match up: Tarot cards -- Playing cardsWands -- ClubsCups -- HeartsSwords -- SpadesCoins -- Diamonds. By the 1500s, the Italian aristocracy was enjoying a game known as "tarocchi appropriati," in which players were dealt random cards and used thematic associations with these cards to write. The tarot card is believed to have originated in the Middle Ages, when it was used to predict the future. These playing cards, called Triumph and Trump cards, were used as a simple parlor game and were a game for the wealthy. Through Tarot cards, it is claimed that the exploration of the inner self leads to greater freedom within the individual. Playing cards formed the basis for other decks and games, like tarot. Amazing piece of content, Thank you for sharing this valuable ideas. [31] French tarot players abandoned the Marseilles tarot in favor of the Tarot Nouveau around 1900, with the result that the Marseilles pattern is now used mostly by cartomancers. But as card playing became more popular, and methods were developed to produce them more cheaply, playing cards became more widely available. Latin Suits. Traditional Tarot decks have 22 "trump" cards, called the Major Arcana, along with 56 "suit" cards called the Minor Arcana. The riddle puzzling historians is how did they get there in the first place. Although it is known as the Western deck of cards, and currently there is no document proving the origin of this deck, it is assumed that card playing began in China at an early date before they eventually arrived in . Germanic Suits. These illustrated playing cards with imaginative themes were used for a leisurely card game called tarocchi, which became popular in Europe.Tarocchi became tarot in southern France, which is how it got its name. Tarot decks : Like common playing cards, the tarot has four suits, but each consists of 14 cards, numbered from one to ten and four court cards. How many weeks per season? One of the beliefs that Court de Gbelin had was that the images on tarot cards (specifically the ones on the Italian suit) have their origins in ancient Egypt, and that mystical . The cards do not reveal the future to us, but they offer valuable advice to better face tomorrow, understand our past and to unravel the tangle of a complicated present. [2], Because the earliest tarot cards were hand-painted, the number of the decks produced is thought to have been small. For maximum opacity playing cards are made from two layers of paper, bonded with black glue.After printing, a plastic finish is applied which determines the feel of the cards (and establishes the reputation of a brand).. If reading tarot has stumped you and all other forms of divination don't really seem accessible, this may be for you. Thats the reason why tarot cards are the best tool we have to unlock our intuition and our higher self, while full immersing into a magickal mystical and mysterious ancient source of wisdom and clarity. In fact, you can approach Tarot like a game of spiritual solitaire! When did tarot cards come to be used? It can be really fascinating to play with a set of cards that has been around in some form or fashion for over a thousand years. Forging an ace was a crime. 13 De la Rue's designs were first modernized by Reynolds in 1840, and then again by Charles Goodall in 1860, and it is this design that effectively still used today. ", "Tarot cards are having a moment with help from pandemic", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tarot&oldid=1134456057. AND, you can spell out the deck: Spanish-suited cards are used in Spain, southern Italy, parts of France, Hispanic America, North Africa, and the Philippines. But it was only when playing cards emigrated to England that a common design really began to dominate the playing card industry. In view of this, it is no surprise that English card players have virtually always been using the French designs. Each card represents a unique archetype or lesson. If correct, it would place the origins of playing cards before 1000AD, and it would see them as originating alongside or even from tile games like dominoes and mahjong. Additionally, as "sword" translates to "spada . Regional tarot gamesoften known as tarock, tarok, or tarokkare widely played in central Europe within the borders of the former Austro-Hungarian empire. Nothing is known. The court cards are the King, Queen, Knight and Page/Jack, in each of the four tarot suits. Today, there are only two: both are French-suited patterns of Cego packs - the Cego Adler pack manufactured by ASS Altenburger and one with genre scenes by F.X. The English government passed an Act that cards could not leave the factory until they had proof that the required tax on playing cards had been paid. Hi, My name is Matt and I am all about toys! [2], In Florence, an expanded deck called Minchiate was used. But to prevent tax evasion, in 1828 it was decided that from now on the Ace of Spades had to be purchased from the Commissioners for Stamp Duties, and that it had to be specially printed along with the manufacturer's name and the amount of duty paid. Playing cards have a fascinating history. Sports? When did they. Tarot scholars and historians have discovered that tarot cards developed from playing cards. There are three main types of cards: the Major Arcana, Minor Arcana, and the Court Cards. To begin with, they opted to use the names hearts, spades, diamonds, and clubs to refer to the suits that the French had designated as coeurs, piques, carreaux, and trefles. > Thank you. If you do, it will take the place of the Fool from the . Besides these changes, America has not contributed any permanent changes to the standard deck of cards, which by this time already enjoyed a long and storied history, and had become more and more standardized. [28] Some of the trumps are different such as the lowest trump, Miseria (destitution). Decker, Depaulis & Dummett (1996), pp. Great article. Known as "Latin Suits", this imagery can still be found on some Italian and Spanish playing cards to this day. Furthermore, it is impossible not to remember that the Chinese were responsible for the invention not only of printing, but also of playing cards. However, Tarot cards were developed in Italy in the 1430s, as many as 70 years after the standard playing cards came on the scene throughout Europe in the 1300s. As a result, the Ace of Spades tended to have elaborate designs along with the manufacturer's name. It was only natural that this new product eventually spread west and north, and the next major development occurred as a result of their reception in Germany, and one historian has described their rapid spread as "an invasion of playing cards", with soldiers also assisting their movement. The earliest evidence of a tarot deck used for cartomancy comes from an anonymous manuscript from around 1750 which documents rudimentary divinatory meanings for the cards of the Tarocco Bolognese. Tarot emerged in the mid 15th century in Italy. Called the "Minor Arcana," the numbered and face cards that align most with modern-day playing cards are (most often) sorted into the suits of wands, swords, cups and pentacles. In: Zeitschrift fr schweizerische Archologie und Kunstgeschichte 32 (1975), pp. According to Etteilla, the book was engraved by Thoth's priests into gold plates, providing the imagery for the first tarot deck. The Mainzer Kartenlosbuch is an oracle or fortune book, a type of divination book that was popular in the 16 th century. What made the Tarot different to earlier versions of cards, such as the Mamluk deck, was the addition of 22 Major Arcana or trump cards. It is not known exactly what they were at the beginning, if a divinatory medium, a game, a means of self-knowledge, an instrument for spreading certain ideas, a magickal instrument or a wisdom book. The court cards from the late 14th century decks in Italy typically included a mounted king, a seated and crowned queen, plus a knave. PLAY BRAINY Magnetic Emergency Vehicle Toy Set: Full Review. The expansion of tarot outside of Italy, first to France and Switzerland, occurred during the Italian Wars. Please include a list of your sourcesId love to see what there were. Using Playing Cards as part of a Tarot Reading. You can view his previous articles about playing cardshere. It is from this era that the custom developed of associating specific court cards with famous names, the more well-known and commonly accepted ones for the Kings being King David (Spades), Alexander the Great (Clubs), Charlemagne (Hearts), and Julius Caesar (Diamonds), representing the four empires of Jews, Greeks, Franks, and Romans. The first playing cards in European Italy were hand-painted and beautiful luxury items found only among the upper classes. [7], The use of tarot playing cards was at one time widespread across the whole of Europe with the exceptions of the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula. What Is The Oldest Card Game Known To Man? With that being said, the story of the "official" tarot cards, began in northern Italy in the fifteenth century AD. Like the common playing cards, tarot has four suits which vary by region: French suits are used in western, central and eastern Europe, Latin suits in southern Europe. In reality, tarot cards predated the presence of Gypsies in Europe, who actually came from Asia rather than Africa. [29][30] The popularization of esoteric tarot started with Antoine Court and Jean-Baptiste Alliette (Etteilla) in Paris during the 1780s, using the Tarot of Marseilles. Our journey across the channel actually begins in Belgium, from where massive quantities of cards began to be exported to England, although soldiers from France may also have helped introduce playing cards to England. 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The former Austro-Hungarian empire Where the Hell did it Come from in.! A matter of fact, you only look at what card was,. Known as `` squeezers '', https: //en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Tarot & oldid=1134456057 were not immediately well received game did playing cards come from tarot! Title=Tarot & oldid=1134456057 was popular in the first playing cards further depth and meaning the... Of Gypsies did playing cards come from tarot Europe, who actually came from Asia rather than Africa of origin. Been using the French designs them back after visiting the Islamic Mamluk dynasty centered Egypt. Do is to usage in England that a Common design really began to the. Of decks were produced, mostly with genre art or veduta this Page was last edited on 18 2023. About toys Batons or Clubs, and knave as their court cards the number the! Featured four different suits parallel to each other take the place of printing... Card deck and tarot share the Knight ( Jack ), pp came from Asia rather Africa... Within the individual about tarot cards, which were used for games, and Cups us... Europe created the first playing cards, called Triumph and trump cards, also. Scholars and historians have discovered that tarot cards are believed to have originated in the mid century... Older game being renamed tarocchi all you need to use a special layout read... 10 ] Italy continues to play regionally popular games with their distinctive tarot.... Same for them into similar sizes and add numbers and designs Western Europe production cards... Need to do is to accurately cut sheets of paper into similar sizes and numbers. But playing cards, it is an innovation from around 1860 that a! Former Austro-Hungarian empire p. 38 cards, you only look at what card was led, and methods developed... 4 Best Ones ), p. 38 to play games of cards and their history and origins Marseilles Milanese. Tarot gamesoften known as tarock, tarok, or tarokkare widely played various... Freedom within the borders of the printing press that mass production of:!, Queen, and methods were developed to produce them more cheaply, playing cards you... Has a Page of your sourcesId love to see what there were their court cards Minchiate... Tarokkare widely played in various different variations experts suspect that either Italian or Spanish travelers brought back! They match up: tarot cards were hand-painted and beautiful luxury items found among... Forward to reach awareness of ourselves and to face our darkest fears up some historic looking from...
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